This excerpt is from the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on "Ethics" authored by James Fieser. It can be found on
http://www.iep.utm.edu/ethics/.
Applied Ethics
Applied ethics is the branch of ethics which consists of the analysis
of specific, controversial moral issues such as abortion,
animal rights, or euthanasia. In recent years applied ethical issues
have been subdivided into convenient groups such as medical
ethics, business ethics,
environmental ethics, and
sexual ethics.
Generally speaking, two features are necessary for an issue to be
considered an “applied ethical issue.” First, the issue needs to be
controversial in the sense that there are significant groups of
people both for and against the issue at hand. The issue of drive-by
shooting, for example, is not an applied ethical issue, since
everyone agrees that this practice is grossly immoral. By contrast, the
issue of gun control would be an applied ethical issue since
there are significant groups of people both for and against gun control.
The second requirement for an issue to be an applied ethical issue is
that it must be a distinctly moral issue. On any given day, the
media presents us with an array of sensitive issues such as affirmative
action policies, gays in the military, involuntary commitment of the
mentally impaired, capitalistic versus socialistic business practices,
public versus private health care systems, or energy conservation.
Although all of these issues are controversial and have an important
impact on society, they are not all moral issues. Some are only
issues of social policy. The aim of social policy is to help make a
given society run efficiently by devising conventions, such as
traffic laws, tax laws, and zoning codes. Moral issues, by contrast,
concern more universally obligatory practices, such as our duty to
avoid lying, and are not confined to individual societies. Frequently,
issues of social policy and morality overlap, as with murder which
is both socially prohibited and immoral. However, the two groups of
issues are often distinct. For example, many people would argue that
sexual promiscuity is immoral, but may not feel that there should be
social policies regulating sexual conduct, or laws punishing us for
promiscuity. Similarly, some social policies forbid residents in certain
neighborhoods from having yard sales. But, so long as the neighbors
are not offended, there is nothing immoral in itself about a
resident having a yard sale in one of these neighborhoods. Thus, to
qualify as an applied ethical issue, the issue must be more than one
of mere social policy: it must be morally relevant as well.
In theory, resolving particular applied ethical issues should be
easy. With the issue of abortion, for example, we would simply
determine its morality by consulting our normative principle of choice,
such as act-utilitarianism. If a given abortion produces greater
benefit than disbenefit, then, according to act-utilitarianism, it would
be morally acceptable to have the abortion. Unfortunately, there
are perhaps hundreds of rival normative principles from which to choose,
many of which yield opposite conclusions. Thus, the stalemate in
normative ethics between conflicting theories prevents us from using a
single decisive procedure for determining the morality of a specific
issue. The usual solution today to this stalemate is to consult several
representative normative principles on a given issue and see where
the weight of the evidence lies.
a. Normative Principles in Applied Ethics
Arriving at a short list of representative normative principles is
itself a challenging task. The principles selected must not be
too narrowly focused, such as a version of act-egoism that might focus
only on an action’s short-term benefit. The principles must also
be seen as having merit by people on both sides of an applied ethical
issue. For this reason, principles that appeal to duty to God
are not usually cited since this would have no impact on a nonbeliever
engaged in the debate. The following principles are the ones
most commonly appealed to in applied ethical discussions:
- Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for the individual in question.
- Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces beneficial consequences for society.
- Principle of benevolence: help those in need.
- Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests when they cannot do so themselves.
- Principle of harm: do not harm others.
- Principle of honesty: do not deceive others.
- Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law.
- Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person’s freedom over his/her actions or physical body.
- Principle of justice: acknowledge a person’s right to due process, fair compensation for harm done, and fair distribution of benefits.
- Rights: acknowledge a person’s rights to life, information, privacy, free expression, and safety.
The above principles represent a spectrum of traditional normative
principles and are derived from both consequentialist and duty-based
approaches. The first two principles, personal benefit and social
benefit, are consequentialist since they appeal to the consequences
of an action as it affects the individual or society. The remaining
principles are duty-based. The principles of benevolence,
paternalism, harm, honesty, and lawfulness are based on duties we have
toward others. The principles of autonomy, justice, and the various
rights are based on moral rights.
An example will help illustrate the function of these principles in
an applied ethical discussion. In 1982, a couple from Bloomington,
Indiana gave birth to a baby with severe mental and physical
disabilities. Among other complications, the infant, known as Baby Doe,
had its stomach disconnected from its throat and was thus unable to
receive nourishment. Although this stomach deformity was correctable
through surgery, the couple did not want to raise a severely
disabled child and therefore chose to deny surgery, food, and water for
the infant. Local courts supported the parents’ decision, and six
days later Baby Doe died. Should corrective surgery have been performed
for Baby Doe? Arguments in favor of corrective surgery derive from
the infant’s right to life and the principle of paternalism which
stipulates that we should pursue the best interests of others when
they are incapable of doing so themselves. Arguments against corrective
surgery derive from the personal and social disbenefit which would
result from such surgery. If Baby Doe survived, its quality of life
would have been poor and in any case it probably would have died at
an early age. Also, from the parent’s perspective, Baby Doe’s survival
would have been a significant emotional and financial burden. When
examining both sides of the issue, the parents and the courts concluded
that the arguments against surgery were stronger than the arguments
for surgery. First, foregoing surgery appeared to be in the best
interests of the infant, given the poor quality of life it would
endure. Second, the status of Baby Doe’s right to life was not clear
given the severity of the infant’s mental impairment. For, to
possess moral rights, it takes more than merely having a human body:
certain cognitive functions must also be present. The issue here
involves what is often referred to as moral personhood, and is central
to many applied ethical discussions.
b. Issues in Applied Ethics
As noted, there are many controversial issues discussed by ethicists today, some of which will be briefly mentioned here.
Biomedical ethics focuses on a range of issues which arise
in clinical settings. Health care workers are in an unusual position of
continually dealing with life and death situations. It is
not surprising, then, that medical ethics issues are more extreme and
diverse than other areas of applied ethics. Prenatal issues
arise about the morality of surrogate mothering, genetic manipulation of
fetuses, the status of unused frozen embryos, and abortion.
Other issues arise about patient rights and physician’s
responsibilities, such as the confidentiality of the
patient’s records and the physician’s responsibility to tell the truth
to dying patients. The AIDS crisis has raised the specific
issues of the mandatory screening of all patients for AIDS, and whether
physicians can refuse to treat AIDS patients. Additional
issues concern medical experimentation on humans, the morality of
involuntary commitment, and the rights of the mentally
disabled. Finally, end of life issues arise about the morality of
suicide, the justifiability of suicide intervention,
physician assisted suicide, and euthanasia.
The field of business ethics examines moral controversies
relating to the social responsibilities of capitalist business
practices, the moral status of corporate entities, deceptive
advertising, insider trading, basic employee rights, job discrimination,
affirmative action, drug testing, and whistle blowing.
Issues in environmental ethics often overlaps with business
and medical issues. These include the rights of animals, the
morality of animal experimentation, preserving endangered species,
pollution control, management of environmental resources,
whether eco-systems are entitled to direct moral consideration, and our
obligation to future generations.
Controversial issues of sexual morality include monogamy versus polygamy, sexual relations without love, homosexual relations, and extramarital affairs.
Finally, there are issues of social morality which examine
capital punishment, nuclear war, gun control, the
recreational use of drugs, welfare rights, and racism.
4. References and Further Reading
- Anscombe,Elizabeth “Modern Moral Philosophy,” Philosophy, 1958, Vol. 33, reprinted in her Ethics, Religion and Politics (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981).
- Aristotle, Nichomachean Ethics, in Barnes, Jonathan, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1984).
- Ayer, A. J., Language, Truth and Logic (New York: Dover Publications, 1946).
- Baier, Kurt, The Moral Point of View: A Rational Basis of Ethics (Cornell University Press, 1958).
- Bentham, Jeremy, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), in The Works of Jeremy Bentham, edited by John Bowring (London: 1838-1843).
- Hare, R.M., Moral Thinking, (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1981).
- Hare, R.M., The Language of Morals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952).
- Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan, ed., E. Curley, (Chicago, IL: Hackett Publishing Company, 1994).
- Hume, David, A Treatise of Human Nature (1739-1740), eds. David Fate Norton, Mary J. Norton (Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2000).
- Kant, Immanuel, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals, tr, James W. Ellington (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1985).
- Locke, John, Two Treatises, ed., Peter Laslett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963).
- MacIntyre, Alasdair, After Virtue, second edition, (Notre Dame: Notre Dame University Press, 1984).
- Mackie, John L., Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, (New York: Penguin Books, 1977).
- Mill, John Stuart, “Utilitarianism,” in Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, ed., J.M. Robson (London: Routledge and Toronto, Ont.: University of Toronto Press, 1991).
- Moore, G.E., Principia Ethica, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903).
- Noddings, Nel, “Ethics from the Stand Point Of Women,” in Deborah L. Rhode, ed., Theoretical Perspectives on Sexual Difference (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1990).
- Ockham, William of, Fourth Book of the Sentences, tr. Lucan Freppert, The Basis of Morality According to William Ockham (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1988).
- Plato, Republic, 6:510-511, in Cooper, John M., ed., Plato: Complete Works (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1997).
- Samuel Pufendorf, De Jure Naturae et Gentium (1762), tr. Of the Law of Nature and Nations
- Samuel Pufendorf, De officio hominis et civis juxta legem naturalem (1673), tr., The Whole Duty of Man according to the Law of Nature (London, 1691).
- Sextus Empiricus, Outlines of Pyrrhonism, trs. J. Annas and J. Barnes, Outlines of Scepticism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
- Stevenson, Charles L., The Ethics of Language, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1944).
- Sumner, William Graham, Folkways (Boston: Guinn, 1906).
Author Information
James Fieser
University of Tennessee at Martin
Last updated: May 10, 2009 | Originally published: June 29, 2003
Categories:
Ethics
